Ödevsel

Contents

12 Temmuz 2007

CONTENTS

PART ONE

1.INTRODUCTION

PART TWO

2.METHODOLOGY

PART THREE

3.LITERATURE REVİEW

3.1. Gender Identity and Gender Roles

3.2. Gender Stereotypes and Effects of Gender Roles.

3.3. Matter of Gender Inequality in different approaches

3.3.1. Islamic Approach

3.3.2. Feminist Approach

3.3.3 Conservative Approach

3.3.4. Liberal Approach

3.3.5. Marxist Approach

3.4. Women Managers and Entrepreneurs

3.4.1. Women Managers and Management

3.4.2. Behaviours towards Women Managers

3.4.3. Women Entrepreneurs and Entrepreneurship

3.4.4. Problems and Supports for Women Entrepreneurs

PART FOUR

WOMEN IN MANAGEMENT

4.1. Effective Factors for Women Participation in Labour Force

4.1.1. Economical Structure

4.1.2. Communal and Cultural Structure

4.1.3. Education Factor

4.1.4. Women Activity Improvements

4.1.5. Technology and Change

4.2. Structure of Women Workforce.

4.2.1. Women Participation in Labour Force.

4.2.2. Differences in Women and Men Labour Force

4.3. Education Factor in Women Participation

4.3.1. Literacy Rate in Labour Force

4.3.2. Educational Status of Women in Labour force

4.4. Women Labour Force by Occupation

PART FIVE

RESULTS AND INTERPRETATION OF INTERVIEW.

PART SIX

CONCLUSION

INTERVIEW QUESTIONS

BIBLIOGRAPHY

TABLES AND FIGURES

Figures

Figure 4.2.1. Economically active population rate (%)

Figure 4.2.2. Labour Force Indicators (Women) (%)

Figure 4.2.3. Labour Force Indicators (Men) (%)

Figure 4.3.1. Literacy Rate in Labour force

Figure 4.3.2. Educational status of Women in Labour Force

Figure 4.4.1. Percentage of employed population by occupation (Women)

Figure 4.4.2. Percentage of employed population by occupation (Men)

Tables

Table 1. Commodity Composition of Exports in Textile (Mil. $)

Table 2. Production Index of Manufacturing Industry (1997=100)

Table 3. Index of Production Workers in Manufacturing Industry

Table 4. Education Level

Table 5. Qualifications of an Ideal Job

Table 6. Promotion as a manager (Yes)

Table 7. Promotion as a manager (No)

Table 8. Qualifications for Promotion

Table 9. Reasons to leave work

Table 10. Behaviours and Prejudices Towards Women Managers

INTRODUCTION

This dissertation focuses on women’s participation in labour market. This participation may vary in different forms. Firstly, as an unpaid, that either can be titled as invisible worker or worker paid in an informal way. In addition, women contribute as paid workers, mainly in lowest paid and least-powerful positions, however recently this has been ensured with women taking more responsibilities in managerial positions.

The aim of this study is to outline the development of women managerial life in textile industry, through history; opposing a dominant patriarchal culture; and strong communal structure, in Turkey. The main reason why Turkey is chosen for this study is that, because it is a unique country to perceive the correlation of culture and gender. In Turkey, Islamic culture is preserved with a democratic system aiming to equal women and men in social, cultural and political life.

Addition to this goal, the dissertation will try to examine how demand-supply trends have changed for the last 20 years economically, how these changes have formed latest statistics, and where they brought women management in textile status today. Textile sector is decided to be focused on, for the reason that textile is one of the leading industries in Turkey. In addition, in this industry women participate with a very high proportion and as it is a broad commerce, it is observed that women’s promotion scale increases by time, related to their education mainly derived from textile schools and managerial degrees.

According to official statistics released in 1998 (SIS, 1998), every 3 women out of 10 participate in labour force outside house where the rate is 9 for men. On the other hand, every 7 women out of 10, who are in labour force, work as an unpaid family worker, whereas it is 1 for men. In addition to these data, labour force participation of men is 63% while women are active only 14%.

Another research made in 1990 (Cayci, S, 1990), due to the fact that women form half of the 61 million populated Turkey, only 7.4 million women are working and 6.1 of this is unpaid family workers. 86.7% of all work in rural areas, 8.8% in services and 4.5% in industrial sector.

If the facts as, working as a paid worker, earning only half of what men get, and also being lack of the social benefits comparing to men are to be considered, latter economical segregation would be more visible. (Dayıoglu, M., 1995)

If Turkey is compared globally, based on the “criterion dependant on gender” that is developed by United Nations, in order to determine statistical, political and occupational participation as gender, it stands as 98th out of 166 countries (Senesen, G., 1999, p.26-36). In1970s and 1980s, in developing countries appropriating industrial policies towards exporting where low-paid labour is used, women participation in labour force rose rapidly as to be named as “womanising of labour ”. However, in Turkey, due to the international integration strategy into international markets and increasing export, women employment did not go through a similar period (Eyuboglu, A., 1998,pg.37-43).

This research will therefore address with the literature review, economical, political, social and cultural reasons why women took lower places in statistics than men.

It will also include important issues that enabled women to contribute as managers in labour market. Additionally how this contribution brought rivalry with men will be discussed.

This dissertation will initiate with outlining methodology used in the study, existing survey data, including official statistics, interviews made with women and men managers and employees in the textile sector. Additionally explaining difficulties dealed with when getting data and surveys, questioning the reliability and validity of these data and information’s used.

It will then continue by a broad literature review on “Gender Identities and Roles”, “Gender Stereotypes and Effects of Gender Roles”, and “Gender Inequality in different believes and approaches”.

In Part 3 women managers and entrepreneurship will be studied as to indicate how women managers promote, what obligations and behaviours they cope with and how to overcome these problems.

In chapter 4,study will focus on statistics taken from World Bank reports and State Institute Statistics (SIS) firstly, on women participation in labour force, on secondly literacy and education of women and finally on occupational division of women labour force.

Besides, in this chapter, factors effective for women contribution in labour force and managerial status will be outlined.

Interview planned for women managers in textile sector, and results taken out of this interview will structure Chapter 5.

This dissertation will conclude with an overview presented.

METHODOLOGY

Methodology followed while preparing the dissertation, is mostly based on collecting the most adequate and reliable data. Therefore, firstly statistics needed to accompany dissertation is compiled from State Statistics Institute (SIS) and World Bank. These were the data, taken from achieves and university libraries. These have been main sources in order to explain women’s role in social life and managerial life.

In addition to these, researches prepared by university professors, unions and specific organisations are used. These research results assist to make visible a more stable and consistent structure in the exploiting of women’s management and labour life.

Advantages of using these data were in the position to support one another. While SIS data were only for Turkey, U.N. research was planned for 116 countries.

However, lack of statistics created a number of disadvantageous issues through the empirical research and the stage of writing the thesis. Statistical data on female work were not only difficult to find; but also inconsistent and unreliable. There were problems related to measurement, and conceptual problems; which results in the lack of recognition and underestimation of female economic activities.

Taking into account the fact that male head enumerators of the household often fill in the census questionnaires in the SIS reports, they tend to present their wives as ‘housewife’ rather than an employee paid in informal ways, which is manly for the cultural reasons.

Furthermore, books, articles and seminar noted gathered together from women based organisations are benefited from.

The books used varied from women in employment to women in management, including historical background, political, social, and economical status. In the aim to determine all the vital issues, large number of books was found yet not that much for women in management. Therefore, women in labour force led studies made towards women in management.

Moreover, seminar notes were found very efficient in tracking house women’s lives, their obligations and supports towards working; as those who discuss women’s problems are housewives and women managers. As a result, these outcomes from these seminars give more clear perspective on real life.

One of the most important source used in the interview held within 126 women, in the textile industry. The reason why a high number of women managers are interviewed is to form a deeper base; and also to bring a supplementary aspect.

The results of this research were to support the analysis, and conclusions made throughout the dissertation. Limitation faced most was to find women managers in the textile sector, where male dominancy exists.

Given all the advantages found and limitations faced above, managerial status has been analysed with all the statistics, books, articles, seminar notes and interviews.

LITERATURE REVIEW

3.1. Gender Identity & Gender Roles

GENDER is the concept refers to relations between men and women, that is, the way divided society’s members up into two biologically distinguished sexes and allocate to them different social roles and attributes. It covers, both the sexual division of labour and cultural definitions concerning femininity and masculinity.

Before defining gender identity, we have to define gender role. Identity is formed from 2 parts, as social and individual. Individual identity consists of the psychological periods. Social identity is the role that community asks and expects him to have. These two parts are so involved with each other.

Gender Identity is the degree that an individual tries to prove himself to the society, as men or women. In addition to this, “gender identity is a part of one’s social and individual identity and the concern to know who you are”(Yuksel, S., 1995, p.120-121). Communities set the roles to men and women, regulating their attitudes, their characters and personal manners. Different communities define these roles apart from each other, depending on the individual’s gender. Gender role is the recognition of all the public’s expectations from an individual as manners, behaviours and characteristics.

Gender identity and Gender role do not mean the same. While the matter in Gender Identity is how an individual consider and feel him/herself; in Gender Role, it turns into the situation that how the public wants to accept that individual. (Atkinson, 1993, p.102)

3.2. Effects of Gender Stereotypes & Gender Roles

“A stereotype is an oversimplified set of descriptive components about a visible group of people who are though to share certain characteristics” (Paludi, D., 1997, p.48).

Gender stereotypes in a community causes to perceive men and women in strict prototypes. Perceiving the behaviour differences of genders tend to change from community to community, or even within a community itself. Gender roles are learned in childhood and are formed by combining biological and psychological differences.

In Turkish community, there are stereotypes as “hair long, mind short” and “do not interfere into men’s job with your hands in cook.” What is believed for women to do are cooking, cleaning the house, babysitting to children. A common saying “boys do not cry” refers that girls are weak, emotional and sensitive creatures; whereas men are strong and reckless, and they do never cry.

“These gender differences indeed are harmful for men as well. Because they cannot complete themselves, cannot be open and emotional. It also hinders them from being close to their children and partners” (Yuksel, 1995, p. 25).

In the development process of gender stereotypes, televisions and children books are very effective as well. In stories strong characters “the heroes”, that save weak people are always boys and girls stand there to be rescued by their heroes.

Gender roles, being thought since childhood, define the status of women in social and working life. Also, the idea of “women’s place is her home” is still valid. Even though, a woman works, her mission in community is first to be a mother and a wife.

One of the most significant differences in the roles of men and women is to have the power. Women see power as infinite and believe that it multiplies by sharing. On the other hand, men apply power to control others and to rule them. Another definition of power is leadership. For men leadership is to rule, to know answer to all questions, to be powerful and strong-minded. Though for women, it is trying to ease the job they do. (Schaff, A., W., 1985, p.30)

Moreover, in gender men have the leader role while women have the follower. Here, the mater is that the leader has the “ruling” character, whereas follower prefers to “share”. Therefore, because those leaders are perceived as the ones that have more desired specialities in a community, men have more effective qualifications comparing to women. (Gerber, 1989, p.31)

Gender differences are particularly diffuse; they include economic inequalities, which derive from the organization of the sexual division of labour both within the household and within the employment.

In Turkish community, men’s roles and activities have far more prestige, are more accepted and privileged. All the roles that culture decide for men, acquire power and prestige to them (Chodorow, N., 1971, p.184-185).

Individual’s gender roles show their specialities in working life as well. Mainly in all areas and times, it has never been so easy for women to participate in workforce and to be productive economically. However, the prejudices and states in minds tend to change by time and by the success of women.

As how seen, gender roles and stereotypes are observed in all fields in a community. The most important consequence of these gender issues effect women’s social and cultural by obstructing them from actively taking part in workforce. That is the reason why in the next section, gender inequality in different approaches will be discussed.

3.3. Matter of Gender Inequality in different approaches

In every society, women are kept behind men. There is a certain way of gender inequality towards women and this will be discussed in this section.

3.3.1. Islamic Approach

Islamic approach should be studied in gender discrimination. No matter what class they belong, women are always overwhelmed and cannot be in the same level with men. The lower level women have no economic freedom or power. Instead of dealing with the problem in terms of inequality between the classes, we should consider religion.

The acceptance in Islam is that women and men are created equal, which means that there is no difference in humanity (Bensadon, N., 1990, p.35). Islamic approach defends that accepting one gender’s superiority over another is wrong. According to Islam, that supposes women working at home and men outside as natural system, indicates that what has to change is not women’s place in this system but the mentality that does not give the sufficient importance to their work.

For those who consider Islam as a life style are more likely to use a more radical/political speech whereas some use a traditional religious speech. Ones who accept the second one, indicate woman’s mother/wife side strongly and her dependency on her husband. However, radical/political ones points out that there should be no inequality or hierarchical formation between women and men because that they are complementary. Islam creates significant regulations and rights for women; firstly

prohibited humans’ sacrifice and recognised women’s identity, then gave right to have property. However this system can be said as complimentary but not equal. (Berktay, F., 1997, p.1)

Radical/politic thinkers say that women can work in every position and if they are more skilled and educated, should be selected.

In Islamic countries, women have little legitimate authority over their own lives. A sociologist and specialist in Muslim societies (Fatima, M, 1975) says that in newly developing countries, there is a tension between the ancient traditions that separate the sexes and exclude women from anything other than their roles and the modern social forces that push for change and modernization.

Feminists refuse all religions commends and claim that religions are creation of men that want to keep women under control. On the other side, Islamic experts say that blaming only Islam for discrimination of women is totally wrong. Because that is more related with how Islam is interpreted and that society’s traditions. For example, Pakistan and Saudi Arabia are both Islamic countries but a woman does not have the right to be a prime ministering Arabia.

3.3.2. Feminist Approach

Since the beginning of 20th century, issues about women’s problems and status have always been an inseparable fraction of Third World Country’s political speech and agenda. Women have always been the symbol works developed for legitimacy, cultural liberty, nationalism and reforms in those countries (Jayawardena, 1986). With the highest priority, developing countries see reforms for women rights as one of the ways to take place in international arena.

Therefore, with the changes in the developed countries’ legal procedures towards women, changes in the employment trends and demand factors, women have started to discover new means of expressing themselves in the areas they demand to participate in; feminism.

In the West ideology, liberal feminism primarily considers recognition of equal citizenship rights to women, being supported with attempts on limiting gender discrimination at employment and in communal life (Cagatay, N., 1998, p.327). This involves the mobilisation of women economically, politically and ideological. With feminism

movement, women’s place in public life change, alter into a supportive position in political union and enable a powerful brick of workforce.

Whatever the category of it could be, feminism has always been accepted as the formation of West countries, and been rejected by Islamic and radical left ruled countries. Noticeably, this has been one of the main factors in obstructing the development of feminism revolution and the manner of women taking their rights and difficulties into account.

However, when approaching to 1980s, for the reason that securing women’s rights has been accepted as Republic’s official ideology and women rights were agreed legally, discussions about women’s status have reached to a distinct position that mainly focused on how and under which conditions governments were intended to defend these rights (Tekeli, 1992). Moreover, in these years, women movement got over the dilemma of “provocative” and “foreigner” critics, and set up a feminist idea strong in notional base that principally opposing male authoritarian public structure, representing and utilizing the independent organisation. Furthermore, feminists targeted on developing these categories in their theoretical works through assessing the meaning of these categories especially in Turkey (Kandiyoti, 1997).

Women Movement acquired a great deal of achievement since the foundation of Turkish Republic. Initially a range of women rights have been recognised legally. Secondly, women have experienced significant practices in political area. Finally above all, women movement/feminism has taken a place in Turkey’s social and cultural life with global grouping in the way of establishing an independent organisation and being against the male sovereignty.

3.3.3.Conservative Approach

The approach that explains women-men discrimination by biological reasons is called so. Freud believes that girl accepts herself as psychologically and biologically weak from boys and feels lack of courage towards life. In his belief this difference shows the devaluation of women and domination of men.

If conservative approach is displayed statistically, an anti-feminist structure is observed. Women earn less, recruited for non-qualified jobs, and sacked more easily. In this situation women tend to stay at home rather than being selective in improving their efficiency (Arin, T., 1995, p.170-171). In this system, another difficulty occurs. Women

are given paid time off in times of pregnancy and giving birth. This increases administrator’s loss and leads women to be discharged firstly.

3.3.4.Liberal Approach

According to John S. Mill, who supports approach strongly, laws that indicate gender discrimination noticeably are both economically and socially wrong. Also they hinder any kind of advance.

First of all, liberal approach can be divided in two parts, as classical liberalism and social liberalism. In classical liberalism, women consider the reason why they not rational individuals as men, not because of their physical formation but because of religious, theoretical, and legal practices. Although women achieved rights like voting, civil rights, income and inheritance, saint ship pf children after divorce, entrance to any kind of jobs and education institutes, they could not obtain the same rights in the marketing area. The reason for that is hat, classical liberation handles the situation in legal rules and did not provide enough results on how and how much to use these rights.

On the other side, social liberalism defines the labour force market as divided and layered. Consistent with this idea, although women ad men have the same education and therefore the skills, women still earn less than men and this leads them to job like “teacher” or “secretary”. Also, women’s responsibilities in family and care of children decrease their competitiveness in market. First way to reduce inequalities is to consider not only legal equality but also competitive equality. Secondly, clear out the socio-economic obstacles and develop positive discrimination.

What are meant by positive discrimination are flexible working hours, founding of nurseries for children in offices, and culture and education programmes to remove the discrimination (Eisenstein, Z., R., 1982, p.93-94).

3.3.5. Marxist Approach

F. Engel, who assumes this attitude, investigated through out the history and told that women were accepted as precious and respective creatures because of the reason that they continue the generation. However this fact turned out as conflicting through years by stopping women from working (Engels, F., 1984, p.121-123).

In relation to Marxist approach civilizations take form from the relations people need for living. Marxism considers the inequality in power and power dispersion, and links the way classes have power over others with the way men have over women (MacKinnon, C. A., 1982, p.1-4).

Marxism forms an opinion about general social relations in terms of business market. Therefore, inequalities in gender are studied with productivity relations. Marxists believe that solutions in capitalism are not enough and an alternative production method should be exploited. Moreover, politics that social state applies in liberalism cannot give an efficient outcome when there is capitalism; although nurseries are founded, responsibility will be left to women at home.

To conclude, every approach considers women as an individual but places them to a lower degree comparing to men. Women have to do both the housework and earn money for family at the same time, in a non-competitive market. This is based on the reason that men already have the superiority. However, women are more encouraged and eager to take place in labour force, which is followed with an increasing entrepreneurship and management soul. Therefore in the next section women managers will be focused on.

3.4. Women Managers and Entrepreneurship

3.4.1. Women Managers and Management

There are several views that define women managers. Some observers believe that women are so weak and emotional to be a leader or so greedy or despotic (Heller, T., 1997, p. 16).

Management involves, planning, organisation, coordination, control, motivation and evaluation (Place, I. & Armstrong, A., 1975, p.10). A good manager should combine teamwork and motivation of workers with his/her leadership identity. However, managers choose different management styles. They can be authoritative, advisory or consultative (Shackleton, V, 1995, p. 149). The reason why women are successful in social relations and communication with individuals, is the way that women choose to participate in decision making process, to overcome negative behaviours directly.

In a research made on women mangers show that their families’ educational status is very high. Another common point is that they are independent, social and active. A similar research indicates tat those women do not give so importance to family values and

marriage ( Williams, M., 1985, p. 334-5). When women managers are compared with men, their superiority over men in qualifications and skills needed for management and specialist positions is observed clearly (Ferrario, M., 1994, p. 111).

The fear of failure effects women managers’ management in an unsuccessful way. In other words, to be afraid of making a mistake, to stay backwards in rivalry, lack of self-confidence and lack of success motivation, and also, the need women feel to be approved by community, hinder from being a manager (Williams, 1985, p. 335).

Women managers, those encourage participation, share power and knowledge, structure 21st century’s new management style. The traditional managerial approach that only one aim was to control everything, apply strict rules in hierarchical structure, control the information, now leave its place to a new approach in women’s’ leadership (Palmer, M., & Hyman, B., 1987, p.107). In this new approach, the aim is to provide change and put the leader in a network rather than a top position in hierarchical model. Leader stands as a model to workers, motivate and direct them, try to increase their creativity. In this style of working, women share information with others and adopt common work

The qualifications that a good leader should have; (Naisbitt, J., & Aburdene, P., 1992, p. 109-111)

- to have a clear identity

to focus on open targets

the consciousness of group members on closed targets

to give importance to others’ rights, views and words

to stock the information of company’s politics and procedures

to make relevant arrangement in employee’s working conditions and motivate them

In the period of globalisation in 21st century, enterprises are in an extensive rivalry. Widening activities in foreign countries, strategic management between cultures, recruiting foreign workers in enterprises, joint ventures and FDIs, gain more importance recently. Managers that work in different cultural structures need to have well communication capabilities; those capabilities women cover strongly. Women sent to foreign countries as a manager, call more attention than men and are remembered more easily. Also, women are

accepted as a better communicator with foreigners and find more issue to talk about (Jelinek, M. & Adler, N., 1988, p. 11-12).

Skills like, technical knowledge, analytical thinking talent, analysing, financial subjects, marketing techniques and skills, planning, project control techniques, are dependent not on gender but both men and women. However, communications, motivation, listening, providing the attendance of every worker in different levels, delegation that form future’s new managerial approach, involve the qualifications of women.

One of the vital issues influences global environment’s rivalry is the strategic advantage that a human resource ensures. Nevertheless, enterprises overall the world, experience dilemma due to the limited potential manager resources. In spite of the fact that more than 50% of world’s population is women, no country is represented with more than 3% women managers (Izraeli, D., 1985).

3.4.2. Attitudes and Behaviours Towards Women Managers

A research made by Heller (1997), aim to present negative and positive sides of women and men managers.

to be distant to workers, to be unreachable

to be authoritarian and aggressive

to make gender discrimination, are men’s negative characteristics.

Women’s negative features are:

to give priority to individuals

to be emotional and to make their responses so clear.

to have less-self-confidence

Another important issue is that, a common attitude towards women managers is more reliant on gender superiority is the “thinking manager, thinking men” attitude (Nkoma, 1998).

Women managers in Turkey complain from not being recruited to men’s positions and not having the same promotions like them. Another obstructions are work travelling and dinners. Women managers, point out that because of communal values, it is accepted as appropriate to have dinner and to travel alone. Also, women mention that men are not

interested in doing the housework and caring for children while they are away for travel (Katrinli, A., & Ozmen, O., 1994, p. 83).

According to a survey named “Woman and man profile in Turkish Private Industry” done by Katrinli and Ozmen (1992), women managers have a feature with endeavour, greed and ambition, impatience, and considering advanced standards to achieve.

To conclude, in a developing country like Turkey, women’s common statement is they are not recruited for management, even if promoted, they face a number of problems.

Women that are not promoted to managerial positions, or those annoyed with behaviours, leave job and set up their own working conditions. Next section will be on women entrepreneurs and entrepreneurship.

3.4.3. Women Entrepreneurs and Entrepreneurship

There are various definitions for entrepreneurship conceptions. “Entrepreneurship- the ability to combine factors of production, organise and manage a business, take risks, and achieve profits- is the most important determinant of business success in a market economy. Entrepreneurship is, itself, to some extent a product of the socio-economic and cultural environment in which an individual lives” (TUSIAD, 1987, p.15). Additionally to this definition, it can be included that, factors such as family background, social attitudes, cultural values, level and quantity of education, and economic conditions either enhance or detract from the promotion of entrepreneurial spirit and ability in the population at large.

Entrepreneurship forms management unit with its managing and organising aspect; Economy with investing, directing supply and demand and searching for market; Psychology with being brave, creative, self-confident; and lastly, Sociology with its role that involves all of these issues (Ertubey, N., 1993, p.224).

Basic criterions are used to determine entrepreneurship activities (Ertubey, N., 1993, p. 229). These are:

to have an organisational skill.

to take risks

to maximise his/her profits.

to be able to forecast

to have creativity and futuristic character.

to trust him/herself and to his/her decisions.

to make commend on capabilities and activities in failure times, not on “fate” and “luck”.

A woman entrepreneur is the one that: (Ecevit, Y., 1993, p. 20)

has one or more offices outside home.

employs people in these offices on her own.

builds up partnerships as the owner.

produces, markets, distributes and sells a service or a good.

deals with people, organisations and bureaus involved with business.

decides in forming the business, planning production and running or enlarging the management

has the power over the profit in the areas it will be used in.

Another definition of an entrepreneur woman is mentioned as the one joins mind with her capabilities, designs the precautions to use labour force and capital supplies in a positive way, analyses, plans, applies and evaluates the consequences (Aklar, N., 1993, p.204).

Studies made in foreign countries, indicate that women entrepreneurs come from middle or up classes, are married and have children, start their business in their 35-40s, and finally are the first child of family and are mostly college graduates. Additionally, it results that, these women work in big companies to develop their capabilities and experiences and choose their former occupational areas in the business they establish (Buttner, H., 1993, p. 59).

There are no exact diversities observed in women and men entrepreneurs in character, success incentive, independence, leadership, taking risks and autonomy. However, men identify entrepreneurship as a career strategy; while women see it as a life strategy. The reason for that can be the way women wish to organize her own business firstly to have flexible hours and therefore to spare more time to her family (Buttner, H. 1993, p.80).

Focusing on Turkey’s women’s managerial history, a short history is observed. The socio-economic and cultural environment for private business began changing in 1983 after the military government gave way to an elected civilian government. Since then, large number

of changes has taken place to promote emergence of a market economy. As a result, more young people are hope to open their own businesses or work for a private company rather than taking jobs in government offices or state enterprises. A survey of students from Middle East Technical University showed that 38% wanted to work for privately owned companies, 24.9% wanted to start their own business and only 6.9% preferred to work in public institutions or companies (TUSIAD, 1989).

However, in Turkey, women’s entrepreneurship received little attention until the 1990s. With the creation of Directorate General on the status and Problems of Women under the Prime Ministry, and increasing contacts with international donor agencies and programs that have successfully supported the establishment and growth of women-owned micro enterprises around the world, government policy makers have begun to realise the potential contribution that micro enterprise development among women in Turkey can move toward resolving some of the major social and economic issues facing women in the country.

In addition to this, it has not been easy to determine the exact number of women entrepreneurs in Turkey. According to a survey made in 21 cities by Turkey Traders and Artists Confederation enumerate that, only 15,463 of 1,096,745 traders and artist are women, which mean 1,42%. The distribution over cities rank as Istanbul, Aydın, Eskisehir and Denizli (Aklar, N., 1993, p. 206-207).

Women entrepreneurs and entrepreneurship face many problems even though they operate their own business. In the next section, these problems will be discussed

3.4.4. Problems of Women Entrepreneurs

Women entrepreneurs face several obstructions. Socio-cultural grading of these obstacles is; (Aklar, N., 1993, p.208)

the general traditional belief that accepts women working outside as disapproving

priority employers give to men while recruiting

the general belief that considers family’s father to have a job first

the lack of support services that will equal women’s work and family lives.

All these are the factors that influence women’s entrepreneurship in a negative way. However, even though women overcome these dilemmas, there are still main problems women have to cope with. These can be divided in two main parts; problems in setting up the business and problems after the set up (Celebi, N., 1993, p.39-40).

Problems in setting up the business: Obtaining capital, finding and hiring office, equipment assurance, and relations with governmental foundations.

Problems after the set up: Lack of Experience and capital, hiring employees, payments, and instability in market.

There are several suggestions can be made to women to overcome these problems. First of all, consultations and guidance services on how to establish and continue with the enterprise can be supplied. Secondly, foundations that give capital to new entrepreneurs can be confirmed and these foundations can give special funds to women. Thirdly, governmental foundations can support women as giving priority to women in renting the offices and also giving flexibility in tax system. Lastly, again these foundations can arrange incentive payments, working hours and retirement issues in order to protect women entrepreneurship (Ecevit, Y. 1993, p.20).

A research made by commission of the European Communities in 1989, to determine whether financial factors encourage or discourage women entrepreneurship, results in different situations.

Firstly, some informants preferred to wait until they saved enough money rather than obtaining bank loans. It can be noted that women’ capacity to finance their ventures themselves also highlights the link between women’s entry into the job market and into independent entrepreneurship.

Secondly, some women had applied for loans but met with refusal. Only after their business began displaying good results, they were able to obtain loans or overdrafts.

Finally, others managed to get loans, but these were accorded with distrust or involved submitting the enterprise to close examination (Business Creation by women, 1989).

With the aim of expanding women entrepreneurship, a 4 dimensional model should be concerned (Ecevit, Y., 1993, p.21).

Education

Capital and Assets

Configuration of market

Organising of women entrepreneurs

Recently, education institutions prepare women to their traditional roles, jobs and occupations, rather than improving their creativity, and directing to independent working. Consequently, these educational institutions should be restructured as to give priority to originality, especially occupational and technical schools (Aklar, N., 1993, p.209-210).

One of the main subjects of expanding women entrepreneurship is the structure of market and supply and demand. Although women get ready for market very strongly, if current market conditions do not change, that means, if labour force is divided as women and men jobs, if women are recruited in less-paid and less-skill needed jobs, there will always be a boundary in development of women entrepreneurship (Ecevit, N., 1993, p. 23).

Furthermore, forming women organisations can be mentioned as another important issue. The very first step in organising is to beware of other women working in the same area. These organisations can be established as cooperatives or unions (Ecevit, N., 1993, p.24).

Other way to direct women to entrepreneurship may be to use communication tools, especially television in an encouraging approach.

Overall these discussions, it can also be said that women’s involvement in entrepreneurship is directly influenced by three major factors;

recent economic trends in Turkey have made it increasingly difficult for single-income families to maintain an adequate standard of living while; at the same time jobs in urban areas have become limited.

unequal access to education, stemming from cultural biases, has created a situation in which the labour market favours males over females.

the lack of, or expense of, child care facilities, are combined with traditional household responsibilities, requires women’s presence in the home and limits their participation in the labour force and dependent on this in management sector.

The combination of these three factors encourages women to become engaged in entrepreneurship. To increase women participation in managerial status, women should be supported in education, union and capital, aiming to decrease prejudices and should be assisted to relieve and solve problems they face.

WOMAN IN MANAGEMENT AND BUSINESS

4.1. Effective Factors for Women Participation in Labour Force

4.1.1. Economical Structure

One of the factors that affect women participation is the economic factor. Economical development level, inflation, unemployment rate can be counted as examples.

The status of countries as developed or developing influence women’s performance in labour force. In developed countries the rate of women participation is far higher than in the rate in developing countries. In addition to that, in developed countries women are mostly work in service and industrial areas. However, in developing countries, because the economy is more dependent on agriculture, women work in that area most.

Moreover, indicators that display economical development state are inflation rate, unemployment rate and industrial division of economy.

In researches made, it is shown that main reason why women work is the economical need. An interview made in 5 Europe countries, (Belgium, France, Germany, Italy and Holland) indicate, 40%of women work because of their income need and economical needs (OECD, 1984, p. 41-42).

In examining the importance of economical needs for women, two main theories have been realized that would back the study; The Neo-Classical School: Human Capital Theory and The Institutional School: Dual (Segment) Labour Market Theory. These two theories themselves and their premises have been in relation to Turkish women’s employment. They have been used particularly to identify the source of women’s equal earnings; to generate false assumptions about women; to explain sexual segregation in industry and within factories, in general and to justify women’s secondary status in labour market.

—The Neo-Classical School: Human Capital Theory:

This theory is mainly relevant to wage discrepancies. According to this theory, human capital consists of those items workers could do to make themselves more productive, such as improving

their education and skill levels. It also implies that in a competitive economic system wage differences are a product of differences in human capital between workers, such as worker’s age, education, training, migration and labour force experience (Ecevit, Y., 1986, p.20).

Economists have argued that women have less human capital than men because they have less education and training and because they obtain less and discontinuous job experience. Women typically leave the labour force in order to bear and raise children, and during this time out of the labour force their stock of human capital deteriorates. When they return to work they are not fully equipped to compete with men. Therefore, women make different investment decisions; in particular, they accumulate less human capital and have lower lifetime earnings as a result (Mincer and Polacheck, 1974). On the other hand, for women giving priority to the family instead of work, not investing as heavily in human capital, and not working continuously are rational and optimal decisions.

However, this theory is in sufficient to explain sexual division and inequalities in the labour market for some reasons. Human capital theory is unable to explain why people working in the same place get different wages. Also, the theory mainly focuses on the factors, which affect the labour supply. It ignores the other side; the demand side. Changes in demand for labour and the general nature of the economic structure can be very influential in determining the position of women.

Increased demand for female labour force during the II. World War is a good example of this. Demand may also increase or decrease in relation to changes in the production process.

In Turkey, women are concentrated in unskilled and low-paid jobs, regardless of their education. Even though girls want to acquire higher, economic barriers as well as cultural and social barriers prevent them from doing so. Therefore, in the following years, women try to get themselves n the labour force and earn money to raise their children and support them financially.

—The Institutional School: Dual (Segmented) Labour Market Theories:

Proponents of human capital theory have been unable to explain why there was sexual discrimination in the labour market, since for them profit maximisation usually prevails over discrimination due to competitive pressures and because they assume a unitary labour market. The dual labour market theory is exemplified by the work of Doeringer and Piore (1971), and argues that jobs in the primary labour market are characterised by high wages, good working conditions, good chances of promotion, equity and due process in the administration of work rules.

This theory has been used widely in advanced industrialised countries to explain sexual segregation. Since it was mainly developed for the U.S. labour market, it is difficult to apply it to Third World countries. It is more relevant to a labour market where the work force is homogenous and there are large oligopolistic corporations. In Turkey, small firms dominated the industry for a long period, and moreover, homogenisation of the labour force is very recent.

Various theories and assumptions are considered to answer economical needs for women. In addition, woman taking part in labour force, also with support is ready to join the managerial sector.

In developing countries like Turkey, women who start their own business should be supported financially in every means. The basic supports that should be given to women entrepreneurs financially are; (World Bank, 1994. P.52-53)

offering service that satisfies insufficient entrepreneur; Providing short term debts, not limiting usage of debts by only business activities, and also making it possible to give debts in small quantities.

Operations done to decrease the cost per unit; Standardisation of debt period and making the conditions for giving debts easy.

Motivating debtor to pay back; Forming joint-liability groups to decrease costs and guaranteeing the paybacks.

These financial supports would increase women entrepreneurship in developing countries and would create new incomes for families.

4.1.2. Communal and Social Structure

What is mainly meant by communal and social structure is family, religion, school, and gender stereotypes. In this section the effect of communal and cultural structure on women’s entrée into labour force will be discussed.

It is more accurate to examine communal structure by starting from family. The configurations of families vary not only from community to community but also within the different classes of the same community (Minibas, T. 1992, p. 52).

In Turkish society, there are two types of families; nuclear family and patriarchal family. Nuclear family is a result of Industry Revolution, that is decision of marriages and job

selection is dependent on women and men themselves. However, patriarchal structure tends to control all family members, mostly women, and decide on behalf of them in every situation. Researches made on Turkish family structures indicate that, nuclear families are % 59.7, and patriarchal families are %19 of all (Citci, pg.152-153, 1992).

Concepts of patriarchal relations play a significant role in not only within the family but also show its effect on labour market as well. Patriarchal relations in labour market are likely to place women in the house as an unpaid worker. It is also and indicator in women’s involvement as a paid worker outside house. There are ways that these relations direct women participation;

Keeping women’ formal education level low and not providing special skill courses.

Rejecting women participation for specific type of jobs, like armed forces and police organisation.

Discrimination in recruiting and promotion; single preference rather than married women.

Discrimination in payment

Dismissal in marriage and pregnancy conditions.

This type of control approaches in women labour are applied systematically, which are hard to realise, yet activate strongly and effectively (Ecevit, 1986, pg.117-118). Employers with prejudice, men sovereign unions and men employees tend to push women outside labour market. In this case, patriarchal relations, both in and outside family settle significant position for discrimination of women in economical structure.

Moreover, traditional countryside women status is still valued as unpaid working or bringing up children. Gender roles, occupational division and separated social perceptive serve women to be placed in different status than men. Women working in countryside do not gain any additional importance or respect within the family itself, yet women in the cities achieve prestige and superiority (Kagitcibasi, 1990, pg.110-111).

As a result of the natural structure, women are accepted as a mother and stay at home. Because of the belief, it is considered that working women would never be a perfect mother and wife, which is the most important issue. Therefore, it is always hard for women to respond demand from their family.

4.1.3. Education Factor

It is more accurate to focus on education and women on two dimensions. Since from the foundation of Turkish Republic in 1923, considering official data, (see World Bank Publication, 1993), women education level is lower than men. Even though all insufficiencies, educational system continued its improvement, yet minority of women percentage increased. Dilemmas and reasons for the difference rate between women and men ratios will be studied in 4.2.2. “Educational status of women” section with details. On the other hand, in this part constructive answers will be tried to find out.

As the education level falls, it becomes harder to avoid from the fact that women leaving employment, choosing housework percentage increases. Education of women, brings improvement firstly in those countries’ development and secondly in their welfare degree. That is why it is appropriate to mention that, this education is reversible in most ways.

There have been a number of arrangements improved in order to start up education in families (World Bank, 1994, p. 41-42).

Families tend to send their daughters to special girl schools rather than ones provide mixed education with boys for cultural reasons. Therefore in rural areas, education seminars should be given to families also.

Families donot accept to send their daughters to distant schools for security reasons. If it were encouraged to build up closer schools to countrysides, girls would have the chance to study too.

Girls, after a proper age take care of their families and helps with the house works. Families letting their children study, faces two main problems for themselves, lack of care of the house work and additionally, compulsorily forced to meet the expensed of the school. For this two main reasons they do not tend o send their children for education. Therefore, flexible hours should be fixed, scholarships may be arranged and books could be given out free gathered from donations.

In addition and most of all, sexual discrimination, as to indicate father as the money financer and mother as the housewife, should definitely not take place in books taught in schools (OECD, 1985, p.134). The more education of women grows; economic productivity and economic situation will be healed in ways.

4.1.4. Women Activity Improvements

In most of the countries, the struggle given for women rights has developed within the class conflicts. In Turkey, it may be emphasized as a similar progress, yet, the communal period that directed towards a considerable women movement, has initiated within a contemporary era. In Turkey, women achieved their civil and political rights as a result of a contemporary movement in a short period of time, not with struggle against male dominancy powered believes (Tekeli, S., 1979, p. 393-394).

It more appropriate to handle women’s improvement starting from the very beginning of the century. After Constitutional Government was founded in 1908, In Salonica, Red-White Women Society was founded. This was followed by a various number of other societies and publicised magazines (Abadan, U., p.16-18, 1979). With every released magazine, with every founded society, women were becoming more conscious about their rights and freedom. These steps were the ones led women to work life.

After I. World War, world had started to change. One of the main results of the war, was to place women in labour force in mostly weapon and food factories, and later followed by banks, hospitals and public offices.

With the foundation of Republic in 1923, a number of settlements were taken into consideration. Women gained to have the right to select and to be selected in 1930. Additionally, constitution has been arranged for women, to have equal rights with men (Tekeli, S., 1979, p.398).

Although to all the progress made in the past, they are never enough for women to be active neither in either political life nor in business life. The rate of women as a PM is only 2.4% where in France it is 5.9%, in England 7.5% and in Denmark it is 33% (Cemal, H., 1998, s.19). What is said is that a parliament is always what the community is. Therefore, we can point out that, the fewer women participate in government, the fewer women will have the right to prove her in the business life.

Women progress that develops in leadership of educated and working women, inform the other women about their situations, display how public status changes with achieving economic independence and make conscious on how to gain their rights.

4.2. Structure of Woman Labour Force

In all divisions of social life, there has been a certain discrimination of women and men. Until the foundation of Turkish republic, no social or political rights have been presented to women. Organized Turkish Civil Law “lent a hand to Turkish woman in liberating from her precapitalist nature and brought her to the same status with men” (Taner, T., 1971, p.106). Laws offered women protection with rights in marriages, divorces, inherits and working conditions. However, economical dependence is still a major factor in women taking place in labour force, although to the rights they have.

Moreover, industrialising period of Turkey is turning out to be true with a vast capacity of women being more active economically and in social life. However socio economy should exist in a higher status.

In Turkey, it can be considered that labour force is becoming more “male dominant”. If we focus on the data of State Statistics Institute, we can note that women labour force participation has been declining from 72% in 1955 to 42.81% in 1990s.

Main reason introduced for this decrease is the mass inner departure from rural areas to big cities start off from the beginnings of 1950s and onwards. Women working as unpaid family worker in countrysides, stay back from the labour force, mostly preferring being a housewife, after coming to cities (Ilkkaracan, I., 1998, p.285). Major cause for this is being lack of employment opportunities; such as education, skill and experience (Basargan, N., 1999).

Similar to most of the other countries, in Turkey, most important hinder women cope with when working outside home is the division of labour by gender. Women are presented as mother or housewives, and not being encouraged or directed by their families, in neither education nor in getting more skill. Therefore, they lack main issues needed to get a job. In Turkey, period of women working as paid worker is approximately 8 years, and in addition, every 1 working women out of 2, leaves her job for marital or pregnancy reasons (Koker, E., 1996).

There stand two main obstacles women come across in the division of labour by gender. Firstly, women continue having responsibilities within the house, and therefore do not choose to work unless compulsory situations financially. Secondly, family members who believe that women should not be dealing with outer world, mostly because of religious and traditional attitudes, which have been discussed in the literature review, do not allow “their” women to work.

Figure 4.2.1.Economically active population rate (%)

Source: State Statistics Institute: Women Statistics

Figure. 4.2.2. Labour Force Indicators (Women) (%)

Source: State Statistics Institute: Women Statistics

Figure. 4.2.3.Labour Force Indicators (Men) (%)

Source: State Statistics Institute: Women Statistics

4.3. Education Factor in Women Participation

One of the most important reasons for changes in employment has been the increased educational qualification gained by women. Education has been playing a very significant role in women for participating in management life. Drucker (1993) mentions that knowledge is increasingly important in economic development and social change. “It is a tool which levers social change and economic development” (Walby, S., 1997).

Especially in the 19th century, women have tried so hard to equal with men in many areas, and used education as a big achievement. Educational qualifications are used as access to social and economic opportunities. They modify the type, salary of the job that the individual will be placed. Yet especially used for getting better and equal jobs as men and additionally for promotion chances.

“Education is a way of spreading and continuing your own culture. Education of women, will firstly enable to be aware of child care, health, and productivity; secondly, encourage in participation in work force, and as a result improve participation in Turkey’s globally merge with world countries economically” (Ozgun, B., 1996).

Education has different functions in society. It empower individuals, preparing them for formal labour force participation and enabling them to apply for bank credits, pay taxes, and carry out other routine tasks. Education also inducts young people into the existing political, social, and economical order. For women in particular, education can have crucial transformative potential. In Turkey, women lag far behind men in access to extended formal education. As shown in figure 4.1. and 4.2., women generally receive less education than men- more women are illiterate and fewer have received high education. The main reason for this inequality is that scarce resources are allocated to male children, reflecting the patriarchal values of Turkish society. The problem is particularly acute for women from traditional communities and families, where daughters are routinely denied extensive formal education.

Compounding the problem is the fact that traditional gender roles reinforce in all applied courses and vocational schools (Arat, Z., 1994, p.83). This gender role reinforcement manifests itself in the sectoral distribution of women-owned micro enterprises, which are concentrated in sectors such as textiles that are intrinsically an extension of home-making skills.

Semi-formal education programs, such as People’ Education Centres, are relatively easy to access by young girls and adult women, as they are legitimate places where women can go without any social stigma. However, like formal education programs, these centres concentrate on women’s home making skills, preparing women only for low-paid, low-status jobs.

As a consequence, the formal and informal education system in Turkey does not prepare women from traditional or lower-income families for participation as salaried employees in modern economy. Lacking the necessary skills to secure quality paid employment, many of these women prefer not to work.

On the other hand, figuring out the increase in illiteracy rate from 27% in 1970to 67% 1990, women realized the importance of skill and knowledge in employment in the rivalry with men. Globally changing demands of Turkey’s economical structure, women play an important role. With the emigration from rural areas to cities, as how discussed in 4.4, working unpaid and lack

of all security rights, and skills, resulted in a disadvantageous for women to be employed in cities. Therefore demand and supply issues advanced women’s vision, and encourage them for a higher education.

Figure.4.3.1 Literacy Rate in Labour force (%)

Source: World Bank. A Country Study: Turkey, Women in Development, Washington: A World Bank Publication, 1993, p.37

In Turkey, since 1970s, the literacy rate of women in labour force has been increasing. For example, in 1970s while %69 of women were illiterate, this rate has declined to %29 in 1990. As shown in Figure 4.3.1, the rate of women gained a very sharp increase recently.

Figure 4.3.2. Educational status of Women in Labour Force

Source: World Bank. A Country Study: Turkey, Women in Development, Washington: A World Bank Publication, 1993, p.37.

Note: 0- illiterate; 1- literate without diploma; 2-primary school; 3- secondary; 4-high school; 5-university.

In Addition to Figure 4.3.1, Figure 4.3.2 displays the educational status of women in Labour force. In relation to the figure, rate of illiterate women has been falling by time. While the rate of after primary educations is only but only 4% in 1970s, it rises to 24% in 1990s.

The statistics in Figure 4.3.2 displays not only the decrease in numbers but also a considerable change in sex discrimination. However, now this discrimination appears in the branches women study in. It is clear that women studying at universities increase in numbers, however, the faculties they select are the ones that give less prestige in working life like arts, linguistics. While men continue to studies that are more involved with technical and science knowledge.

Finally, young women choose to study in literature rather than mathematics and science, that they affect their university choices.

4.4. Women Labour Force by Occupation

In Turkey, starting from 1950s, a hypothesis was held for women in labour force; for women having a paid job outside home was not a primary goal. If women work, they accept it as a temporary and compulsory duty. However, where they exactly wish to be is home and to do housework. The question “why women do not play an important role in managerial status and economic activities” was explained with her role in families and with what patriarchal status caused.

Yet this assumption was not that wrong. In those years in cities, industrial work was far behind accepted a prestige, and was not chosen for women except for necessary times. Also, service sector was proceeding fast and that generated new employment areas for women.

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